แอปพลิเคชัน

It is a comparatively easy matter to coat platinum electrodes with platinum black by electrolytic deposition of the metal from a platinizing solution.

Boric acid is used in many primary circuits of nuclear power plants, in nickel plating baths, and in the production of optical glasses. Furthermore, boron compounds are found in washing powders and fertilizers. This bulletin describes the potentiometric and thermometric determination of boric acid. The determination also covers further boron compounds, when acidic digestion is applied.

Indication of the titration endpoint of the weakly alkaline or weakly acidic terminal groups in non-aqueous solution is frequently not easy. An improvement is possible by using a suitable titrant (TBAH = tetrabutylammonium hydroxide for terminal carboxyl groups; perchloric acid for terminal amino groups).An improvement in the evaluation can also be achieved by choosing benzyl alcohol as the solvent.The choice of electrode combination and the measuring setup is also important. Differential potentiometry using the three-electrode technique results in a great improvement in titrations in poorly conducting solutions. Noisy signals are eliminated.

The quality of egg-based pasta is primarily determined by its egg content. Also of importance, however, is the water content, which influences the storage life of the product, as well as the degree of acidity which, in the case of high values, indicates undesirable acidification during processing or drying. A check of the chloride content shows whether salt has been added to the pasta.

The photometric determination of nitrate is limited by the fact that the respective methods (salicylic acid, brucine, 2,6-dimethyl phenol, Nesslers reagent after reduction of nitrate to ammonium) are subject to interferences. The direct potentiometric determination using an ion-selective nitrate electrode causes problems in the presence of fairly large amounts of chloride or organic compounds with carboxyl groups. The polarographic method, on the other hand, is not only more rapid, but also practically insensitive to chemical interference, thus ensuring more accurate results. The limit of quantification depends on the matrix of the sample and is approximately 1 mg/L.

The pH value and oxidation reduction potential (ORP) of soil provide important information about soil properties, such as solubility of minerals and ion mobility. Knowledge of these properties allows making predictions concerning plant growth, bacterial activity, nutrients that may be needed, possible corrosive effects on buildings, etc.Here, the determination of the pH value is described according to ISO 10390, EN 15933 and ASTM D4972. Th oxidation reduction potential determination is carried out in a suspension.

Halides interfere with most determinations of mercury or silver. However, if mercury or silver is titrated with sulfide ions, extremely insoluble sulfides are formed.A simple method is described that allows the direct titration of mercury(II) or silver(I) compounds in the presence of halides. The potentiometric titration takes place under alkaline conditions using thioacetamide as the titrant after formation of the EDTA complex.Organic compounds that are insoluble in alkaline EDTA can also be titrated after a Schoeniger digestion.

This Bulletin is a supplement to Application Bulletin no. 36 (Half-wave potentials of inorganic substances) in the sense that the half-wave potentials of 100 different organic substances are listed. At the same time the supporting electrolytes used and the limits of determination are given.The various substances are listed in alphabetical order. The most important polarographically active functional groups are taken into consideration. This means that substances for related structures can also be determined polarographically in the same or similar supporting electrolytes, although they may not appear in the list.Unless otherwise stated, the half-wave potentials refer to a temperature of 20 °C, and the potentials are given in volts, measured with a sat. KCI-Ag/AgCl electrode assembly.The determination limits give the smallest concentrations which can be measured without risking serious errors in the results. In all cases, the limit of detection lies below the limit of determination.

This Application Bulletin describes the voltammetric determination of the elements antimony, bismuth, and copper. The limit of detection for the three elements is 0.5 ... 1 µg/L.

According to the described method, NTA and EDTA can be determined in mass concentrations of 0.05 mg/L up to 25 mg/L in polluted water and wastewater.At first NTA and EDTA are converted to the corresponding Bi complexes by addition of Bi3+ ions at a pH value of 2.0. As these Bi complexes have significantly different peak potentials, they can be determined simultaneously by DP polarography. The interfering anions nitrite, sulfite, and sulfide are removed from the sample by acidification and purging. Interfering cations are removed by cation exchange; any NTA or EDTA heavy metal complexes present in the sample are disintegrated during this procedure. To remove surfactants and other organic components interfering with the analysis, the sample solution is run through a column filled with non-polar adsorber resin.

This Application Bulletin gives an overview of the volumetric water content determination according to Karl Fischer. Amongst others, it describes the handling of electrodes, samples, and water standards. The described procedures and parameters comply with the ASTM E203.

This Bulletin describes fluoride determination in various matrices with the help of the ion-selective fluoride electrode (F-ISE). The F-ISE is comprised of a lanthanum fluoride crystal and exhibits a response in accordance with the Nernst equation across a wide range of fluoride concentrations.The first part of this Bulletin contains notes regarding the handling and care of the electrode and the actual fluoride determination itself. The second part demonstrates the direct determination of fluoride with the standard addition technique in table salt, toothpaste and mouthwash.

The determination of sodium with the sodium ISE represents a selective, rapid, accurate, and favorably-priced method which is described in this Bulletin. Examples are used to show how determinations can be carried out with the 692 pH/Ion Meter using either direct measurement or the standard addition technique. The sodium concentration has been determined in standard solutions, water samples (tap water, mineral water, wastewater), foodstuffs (spinach, baby food), and urine. The construction, working principles, and areas of application of the two Metrohm ion-selective sodium electrodes – the 6.0501.100 Glass membrane ISE and the 6.0508.100 Polymer membrane ISE – are explained in detail.

The quality of a vinegar depends on various factors. Since the contents of the individual components vary widely even from bottle to bottle, it is impossible to give average values. This Bulletin describes the determination of the following parameters in vinegar: pH value, total titratable acid, volatile, and non-volatile acid, free mineral acid as well as free and total sulfurous acid.

This Bulletin describes analysis methods for determining the following parameters: pH value, total titratable acid, ash alkalinity, formol number, total sulfurous acid, chloride, sulfate, calcium, and magnesium. These methods are suitable for the analysis of jams, fruit and vegetable juices, and their concentrates.

This Bulletin describes methods for measuring the pH value of dairy products. Particular attention has been paid to the handling, maintenance, and storage of the pH electrodes.

This Bulletin describes potentiometric titration methods for the determination of the acidity in milk and yoghurt according to DIN 10316, ISO/TS 11869, IDF/RM 150, ISO 6091 and IDF 86, the chloride content in milk, butter and cheese according to EN ISO 5943, IDF 88, ISO 15648, IDF 179, ISO 21422, and IDF 242. Additionally the determination of the sodium content in milk using the thermometric titration is described. The determination of the oxidation stability of butter in accordance to AOCS Cd 12b-92, ISO 6886 and GB/T 21121 as well as the determination of lactose in lactose free milk by ion chromatography is also described.For the determination of the pH value in dairy products see Application Bulletin AB-086 and for the determination of calcium and magnesium see Application Bulletin AB-235.

This Bulletin describes potentiometric titration methods for checking sulfuric acid and chromic acid anodizing baths. In addition to the main components aluminum, sulfuric acid, and chromic acid, chloride, oxalic acid, and sulfate are determined.

Potentiometric titration methods for the analysis of acid and alkaline tin plating baths are presented. The following methods are described: tin(II) / tin(IV) / total tin, free fluoroboric acid, or free sulfuric acid, chloride in acidic tin baths, free hydroxide, and carbonate in alkaline tin baths.

Methods are described for the potentiometric analysis of the following bath components:Brass plating bath: copper, zinc, free cyanide, ammonium, carbonate, and sulfite.Bronze plating bath: copper, tin, and free cyanide.

This Bulletin describes the potentiometric determination of lead, tin(II), and free fluoroboric acid.

This Bulletin describes titrimetric methods for the determination of cadmium, free sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, and total cyanide. The free cyanide can be calculated from the total cyanide and the Cd content.

This Application Bulletin describes the determination of mercury by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) at the rotating gold electrode. With a deposition time of 90 s, the calibration curve is linear from 0.4 to 15 μg/L; the limit of quantification is 0.4 μg/L.The method has primarily been drawn up for investigating water samples. After appropriate digestion, the determination of mercury is possible even in samples with a high load of organic substances (wastewater, food and semi-luxuries, biological fluids, pharmaceuticals).

Edible oils and fats contain natural tocopherols and, in some cases, also synthetic tocopherols added as antioxidants. The method described below allows the simple and rapid determination of the tocopherol content by voltammetry. The tocopherols are oxidized electrochemically at the glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The limit of quantitation is approximately 5 ppm (mg/kg) tocopherol.

In addition to its natural occurrence in fruit and vegetables, ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is used as an antioxidant in foods and drinks. Ascorbic acid is furthermore also to be found in numerous drugs.Ascorbic acid and its salts and esters can be determined with titration or by using polarography, for which ascorbic acid is oxidized to form dehydroascorbic acid.Bi-voltammetric or photometric equivalence point indication can be used for titrimetric determination. It must be taken into account here that only bi-voltammetric indication is independent of the inherent color of the sample. Polarography is the most selective of the methods described, as other reducing or oxidizing substances are not recorded.

The potassium (or ammonium) ion is precipitated with sodium tetraphenyl borate, and the excess of this reagent back-titrated against the thallous(I) ion, using biamperometric endpoint detection. Ammonium can either be titrated together in an acid solution, or driven off by previous boiling in an alkaline solution. Methods are given for determining potassium in the presence of large excesses of sodium, ammonium, calcium, and magnesium.

This Bulletin describes the complexometric potentiometric titration of metal ions. An ion-selective copper electrode is used to indicate the endpoint of the titration. Since this electrode does not respond directly to complexing agents, the corresponding Cu complex is added to the solution. With the described electrode, it is possible to determine water hardness and to analyze metal concentrations in electroplating baths, metal salts, minerals, and ores. The following metal ions have been determined: Al3+, Ba2+, Bi3+, Ca2+, Co2+, Fe3+, Mg2+, Ni2+, Pb2+, Sr2+, and Zn2+.

This bulletin contains two parts. The first part gives a short theoretical overview while more details are offered in the Metrohm Monograph Conductometry. The second, practice-oriented part deals with the following subjects:Conductivity measurements in general; Determination of the cell constant; Determination of the temperature coefficient; Conductivity measurement in water samples; TDS – Total Dissolved Solids; Conductometric titrations;

This Application Bulletin describes a polarographic method for the determination of cyanide that allows to determine free cyanide fast and accurately. The determination also succeeds in solutions containing sulfides, where other methods fail. Cyanide concentrations in the range b(CN–) = 0.01...10 mg/L cause no problems. Interference caused by anions and complexed cyanides has been investigated.

Wine sometimes contains heavy metals which can be precipitated out by the addition of potassium ferrocyanide. Generally, these are quantities of iron ranging between 1 and 5 mg, and exceptionally up to 9 mg Fe/L. Zinc, copper, and lead – in descending order of content – may also be present. To estimate the quantity of potassium ferrocyanide necessary for the «décassage of the wine», only very complicated and relatively inaccurate methods have been described until now.This Bulletin permits accurate results to be obtained easily with a simple instrumentation. The results are available in a short time.

Cadmium, lead, and copper can be determined simultaneously in oxalate buffer by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) after digestion with sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide. Tin present in the sample does not interfere with the determination of lead.For the voltammetric determination of tin please refer to Application Bulletin no. 176.

Cu2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, and Fe2+/Fe3+ are determined simultaneously. Interference due to the presence of other metals is mentioned, and methods given to eliminate it. The threshold of determination is ρ = 20 µg/L for Co and Ni, and ρ = 50 µg/L each for Cu, Zn, and Fe.

This Application Bulletin describes methods for the polarographic and voltammetric determination of small quantities of chromium in water, effluent water and biological samples. Methods for the sample preparation for various matrices are given.

In the past, selenium determinations have always been either unreliable or have required complicated methods. However, as selenium is on the one hand an essential trace element (vegetable and animal tissues contain about 10 μg/kg), while on the other hand it is very toxic (threshold value 0.1 mg/m3), it is very important to cover determinations in the micro range. Cathodic stripping voltammetry (CSV) enables selenium to be determined in mass concentrations down to ρ(Se(IV)) = 0.3 μg/L.

Bromide is removed from the sample as BrCN by distillation. The BrCN is absorbed in sodium hydroxide solution and decomposed with concentrated sulfuric acid, then the released bromide ions are determined by potentiometric titration with silver nitrate solution. Iodide does not interfere with the determination.Iodide is oxidized to iodate by hypobromite. After destruction of the excess hypobromite, the potentiometric titration (of the iodine released from iodate) is carried out with sodium thiosulfate solution. Bromide does not interfere, even in great excess.The described methods allow the determination of bromide and iodide in the presence of a large excess of chloride (e.g., in brine, seawater, sodium chloride, etc.).

It has been known for years that consuming too much nitrates from foodstuffs can result in cyanosis, particularly for small children and susceptible adults. According to the WHO standard, the hazard level lies at a mass concentration c(NO3-) ≥ 50 mg/L. However, more recent studies have shown that when nitrate concentrations in the human body are too high, they can (via nitrite) result in the formation of carcinogenic and even more hazardous nitrosamines.Known photometric methods for the determination of the nitrate anion are time-consuming and prone to a wide range of interferences. With nitrate analysis continually increasing in importance, the demand for a selective, rapid, and relatively accurate method has also increased. Such a method is described in this Application Bulletin. The Appendix contains a cselection of application examples where nitrate concentrations have been determined in water samples, soil extracts, fertilizers, vegetables, and beverages.

"A sensitive methods to determine manganese is described. It is primarily suitable for the investigation of ground, drinking and surface waters, in which the concentration of manganese is important. The method can naturally also be used for trace analysis in other matrices.Manganese is determined in an alkaline borate buffer by the anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV). Interference by intermetallic compounds is prevented by the addition of zinc ions in the sample. The limit of determination lies at b(Mn) = 2 µg/L."

This bulletin describes the determination of calcium, magnesium, and alkalinity in water by complexometric titration with EDTA as titrant. It is grouped into two parts, the potentiometric determination and the photometric determination.There are multiple definitions of the different types of water hardness. In this Application Bulletin, the following definitions are used: alkalinity, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, total hardness, and permanent hardness. Explanations of these definitions and other expressions are provided in the Appendix.Determination of alkalinity during the photometric part is carried out in a separate acid-base titration before the complexometric titration of calcium and magnesium in water. Permanent hardness can be calculated from these values. The determination of calcium and magnesium in beverages (fruit and vegetable juices, wine) is also described.The photometric part includes the determinations of total and calcium hardness and thereby indirectly magnesium hardness using Eriochrome Black T and calconcarboxylic acid as indicators (in accordance with DIN 38406-3).

This Bulletin describes a simple polarographic method for the determination of quinine in drinks and tablets. Whereas in drinks quinine can be determined directly, in the case of tablets it must first be extracted. The limit of quantification is 0.2 mg/L or 4 μg/tablet.

Nitrite can be determined polarographically after its conversion to diphenylnitrosamine (C6H5)2NNO. Potassium thiocyanate is used as a catalyst in order for the conversion to proceed rapidly and quantitatively. The reaction takes place in acid solution at a pH value of approx. 1.5. The limit of quantification is 5 μg/L NO2-.

In our Instructions for Use for the 656 Electrochemical Detector the user will find all the basic information about how it works and how to use it as well as how to handle the electrodes. They also contain information about the demands placed on the separating system together with the causes of and remedies for detection problems.Application Bulletin no. 128 is intended to provide an overview of the most important substance classes and mention some compounds that can easily be determined oxidatively, i.e., with detection limits in the pg range; it also mentions possible working conditions for separation and electrochemical detection and illustrates them with examples.

After acid digestion, the sample solution is neutralized with sodium hydroxide to form sodium dihydrogen phosphate. An excess of lanthanum nitrate is added and the released nitric acid is then titrated with sodium hydroxide solution.NaH2PO4 + La(NO3)3 → LaPO4 + 2 HNO3 + NaNO3This determination method is suitable for higher phosphate concentrations.

Potentiometric titration is an accurate method for determining chloride content. For detailed instructions and troubleshooting tips, download our Application Bulletin.

This Application Bulletin describes a voltammetric method for the determination of aluminum in water samples, dialysis solutions, sodium chloride solutions and digestion solutions (e.g. of lyophilisates). The method utilizes the complexation of the Al3+ ion by Calcon (Eriochrome blue black R). The formed complex can easily be reduced electrochemically at 60 °C. The limit of quantitation depends on the purity of the reagents used and is approx. 5 µg/L.

A method is described in this Bulletin that allows molybdenum to be determined in steel and other materials containing a high iron concentration. Mo(VI) is determined at the dropping mercury electrode by catalytic polarography. The determination limit is approx. 10 μg/L Mo(VI).

Although the known photometric methods for the determination of ammonia/ammonium are accurate, they require a considerable amount of time (Nessler method 30 min, indophenol method 90 min reaction time). A further disadvantage of these methods is that only clear solutions can be measured. Opaque solutions must first be clarified by time-consuming procedures. These problems do not exist with the ion-selective ammonia electrode. Measurements can be easily performed in waste water, liquid fertilizer, and urine as well as in soil extracts. Especially for fresh water and waste water samples several standards, such as ISO 6778, EPA 350.2, EPA 305.3 and ASTM D1426, describe the analysis of ammonium by ion measurement. In this Application Bulletin, the determination according to these standards is described besides the determination of other samples as well as some general tips and tricks on how to handle the ammonia ion selective electrode. Determination of ammonia in ammonium salts, of the nitric acid content in nitrates, and of the nitrogen content of organic compounds with the ion-selective ammonia electrode is based on the principle that the ammonium ion is released as ammonia gas upon addition of excess caustic soda:NH4+ + OH- = NH3 + H2OThe outer membrane of the electrode allows the ammonia to diffuse through. The change in the pH value of the inner electrolyte solution is monitored by a combined glass electrode. If the substance to be measured is not present in the form of an ammonium salt, it must first be converted into one. Organic nitrogen compounds, especially amino compounds are digested according to Kjeldahl by heating with concentrated sulfuric acid. The carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide in the process while the organic nitrogen is transformed quantitatively into ammonium sulfate.

Potassium is one of the most common elements and can be found in many different minerals and other potassium compounds. It is of importance for humans, animals and plants as it is an essential mineral nutrient and involved in many cellular functions like cell metabolism and cell growth. For these reasons, it is important to be able to declare the potassium content of food or soil to reduce problems that may arise by a potassium deficiency or extensive consumption.This bulletin describes an alternative to flame photometric method using an ion selective electrode and direct measurement or standard addition technique. Several potassium determinations in different matrices using the combined potassium ion-selective electrode (ISE) are presented here. Additionally, general hints, tips and tricks for best measurement practice are given.

This Bulletin describes the potentiometric determination of hydrogen sulfide, carbonyl sulfide, and mercaptans in gaseous and liquid products of the oil industry (natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, used absorption solutions, distillate fuels, aviation gasoline, gasoline, kerosene, etc.). The samples are titrated with alcoholic silver nitrate solution using the Ag Titrode.

This Application Bulletin describes a simple polarographic method to determine monomeric styrene in polymers. The limit of determination lies at 5 mg/L. Before the determination, styrene is converted to the electrochemically active pseudonitrosite using sodium nitrite.

This Application Bulletin gives an overview of the coulometric water content determination according to Karl Fischer.Amongst others, it describes the handling of electrodes, samples, and water standards. The described procedures and parameters comply with the ASTM E1064.